Social Capital on Facebook Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Social Capital on Facebook - Essay Example The book, Democracy in America, was written by Alexis de Tocqueville and had played significant role in the modern society of America. Tocqueville, a social scientist, had educated American audience to discern systematic studies of the relationship of democracy and civil society. The freedom enclosed in the concept of democracy extends up to the privilege of expression of the individuals. Freedom of expression is now being played up and exploited being the selling point of the social networking sites. Social networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter, two of the most famous social network, allowed their users to express and document every thoughts and activities of one’s own account. This privilege suddenly made Facebook a non-virtual consort place and pool of information, and sometimes of misinterpretation. With this fact in mind, it’s a marvel with what advantages and downsides that awaits in the society that social networking had brought in. Social Capital. Robert Putnam, author of the book Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (1993) was able to expound the connection of social network to social capital. During an interview with Putnam, he had stated that â€Å"the quality of public life and the performance of social institutions are indeed powerfully influenced by norms and networks of civic engagement.†... This was primarily designed to be used in Harvard University, to know each other better. (Carlson 2011) In 2007, a study of The Benefits of Facebook "Friends:" Social Capital and College Students' Use of Online Social Network Sites had cited Putnam’s distinction between bridging and bonding social capital. An excerpt of the study to purposely explain is below: The former is linked to what network researchers refer to as "weak ties," which are loose connections between individuals who may provide useful information or new perspectives for one another but typically not emotional support (Granovetter, 1982). Alternatively, bonding social capital is found between individuals in tightly-knit, emotionally close relationships, such as family and close friends. After briefly describing the extant literature on these two forms of social capital and the Internet, we introduce an additional dimension of social capital that speaks to the ability to maintain valuable connections as one pro gresses through life changes. This concept, "maintained social capital," permits us to explore whether online network tools enable individuals to keep in touch with a social network after physically disconnecting from it. True to its film counterpart, The Social Network (2010), Facebook’s surprising fame seems to imply a persistent and startling necessity for even the closest â€Å"connection† in the broad network many times less socialized, linked and shared than the one in which our parents and grandparents grew up. However, universality is not much of an index, especially when the product at hand is absolutely free. (Atkinson 2011) Influence. Putnam had explained â€Å"that social connections and civic engagement pervasively influence our public

Gun Control Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

Gun Control - Essay Example Advocates argue that pro-gun control laws such as implementing a complete ban on possession of assault weapons can play a key role in limiting and/or restricting access to such weapons and hence ultimately result in reduction of violent crimes and attacks (Moorhouse and Wanner, 2003; Hemenway, 2006). Critics, however, disagree stating that no amount of pro gun-control laws can prohibit violent attacks and crimes involving assault weapons and that there is lack of literature substantiating the relationship between gun prevalence and violence (Carter, 2006). Regardless of the immense and widespread debates and controversies centered on the policy of gun control and the hysteria, panic, and terror accompanying the same generating varied emotions across diverse sections of the society, the fact that it still remains one of the most pressing issues in modern day America cannot be denied. This essay aims to discuss, analyze, examine and understand the issue of gun control against the vario us arguments in favor of as well as against it. The essay essentially argues in favor of passing of legislation that outlaws assault weapons. Gun culture in the U.S.: Overview and implications Firearms have off late risen to an elevated status commanding a central position as a critical public policy issue. The long-running debates and controversies related to firearms and it’s impact and implications on the American way of life demand a permanent and effective solution in order to end the chaos and restore the instability and dent caused in the social structure. However the solutions offered so far appear bleak at best, largely because the issue of gun control is difficult to deal with given that the gun-culture is an inherent part of the American society. The politics of guns: The proponents of gun control have persistently and vehemently defended the right to bear firearms citing their democratic rights to do so, granted by the U.S. constitution. Ownership of gun has come to be the fundamental democratic right of citizens in the U.S over the years (Burbick, 2006). The National Rifle Association who are the staunch supporters and defenders of the possession of firearms have consistently defended the right to bear firearms and continues to do. In a recent move by the NRA, the association once again launched full-fledged efforts to counter President Obama's bold gun control plans (The Guardian, 2013). Various new laws have been passed over the years granting the citizens an exclusive right to hold concealed firearms as a response to cater to the epidemic-level fears and anxiety among the citizens concerning their safety. Such favorable laws have escalated the access to firearms to the common public which in turn paved way for the development of a lucrative firearms manufacturing market that are now found to strongly lobby against any policies aimed at restricting or banning the possession of firearms. Such efforts on the part of the pro-firearms and ant i-gun control lobbyists have essentially blunted the political efforts bringing the political momentum to a temporary halt (Squires, 2012). The gun control policy is perceived by the opponents as a conflict between the rural hunters and shooters of NRA and other pro-gun organizations versus the government and law enforcement officials (Bruce and Wilcox, 1998). Critics argue that the consistent efforts by such pro-gun organizations have made access to firearms easier, particularly among the children, youth and the mentally unstable sections

Organizational Culture And Leadership Styles Education Essay

Organizational Culture And Leadership Styles Education Essay Human learning in the 21st century will be as different from human learning in the 20th century as the micro-chip and neural networks are from the valve. (Lepani,1994, p. 3). In this century the scope and pace of change seem to be accelerating in all areas of human existence. We have to move with it or ahead of it if we are not to be left behind. Academic institutions are feeling this tidal wave of change in ways that have left many educators consciously or otherwise confused, exhausted and disillusioned. (Deal, 1990, p.131) Change can be seen as evolutionary and dynamic with an emphasis on continuous learning and adaptation (Dixon, 1994; Fullan, 1991; Fullan and Miles, 1992). The challenge for academic institutions is to adopt change strategies that provide internal stability while moving ahead. This challenge may be able to be met in education and elsewhere by focusing on a change strategy where learning comes to be seen as the single most important resource for organizational re newal in the postmodern age (Hargreaves, 1995). The nations that lead the world into the next century will be those who can shift from being knowledge transformational bodies to those that will have the capacity to possess, renew and utilize knowledge successfully. The major issue that confronts educators is whether or not we can transform education and create academic institutions that can successfully prepare our nations students for life. This process calls for leadership at all levels, a good school culture and personal commitment of those who are responsible for these institutions. They must take the time to seriously consider the kinds of changes that are needed. They have to address the needs of students and teachers and then a fundamental transformation of education could happen. There are many routes for organizational development through change, which can be used to improve an organizations quality. Learning organization models provide one administrative method that can be used to provide direction for organizational achievement for both public and private organizations (Makasarnont, 1997). As Hoy and Miskel (2001) state, academic institutions are service organizations that are committed to teaching and learning. The academic institutions functions as a learning organization in order to continue to improve performance and build capacity to manage change (Corcoran and Goertz, 1995) in an environment where academic institutions are becoming increasingly borderless. Conceptualizing academic institutions as learning organizations is appropriate, given the new challenges of a fast-changing world. To be relevant in a knowledge society, new skills, capabilities and knowledge are required. The focus of each academic institution should therefore fall on the enhancement of individual commitments to continuous learning by creation of an enabling enterpreutionial culture and transformational leaders for the development and growth of academic institutions as Learning Organizations. Teachers have to be awake to these changes and must try to improve their skills all the time. They cannot stop their learning simply because they have graduated from school or the university and have been employed; if they would like to be successful, they must grow. They have to keep on learning from their experiences, environment, or their organization. As Lassey (1998) shows successful people are people who learn. Without learning, there is no improvement; and without improv ement the institutions stagnate. The institutions should be places where participants continually expand their capacities to create and to achieve. If academic institutions are to be effective learning organizations, they must find ways to create structures that continuously support teaching and learning and enhance organizational adaptation. Therefore the learning organization is the important thing that an administrator has to create in her/his school in order to give leaders, teachers and students an opportunity for learning continuously, based on the belief that the more people learn, the better they can perform when they go on in life. Need for the Study Many academic institutions are struggling to meet the requirements for academic performance. In this study academic institutions is narrowed down to only schools, as they are base in the description of an academic institution. Despite numerous promising initiatives from the government to promote student success in schools, overall gains in student performance have been disappointing. Some commentators have suggested that nothing less than a fundamental redesign of the educational system will begin to address the hurdles faced by students in succeeding at school (Boyd Shouse, 1997). Coleman (1997) noted that the highly bureaucratic nature of Government schools stifles creative problem solving and blocks receptivity to large-scale and transformative system reform. He described schools as administratively driven organizations with long feedback loops from the top of the organization (for example, the principal) to component subsystems (for example, teachers and students). Coleman consi dered schools with decentralized authority structures and norms of accountability and social support, which he labels as output-driven organizations, as having more promise than ones with traditional bureaucratic forms for increasing teacher and student performance. With growing concerns about the ability of the public education system to respond to the needs of students (Orfield et al., 2004), many voices in the school reform movement have discussed the need for schools to operate as learning organizations, which addresses the importance of faculty and staff working together to solve problems through networking and team learning (Senge et al., 2000). The degree to which schools function as learning organizations may not only influence the willingness of school employees to embrace new innovations for promoting student achievement, but also their personal well-being, their sense of efficacy in working with students, their work satisfaction, and their evaluation of the school as a hi gh-performing organization. A burgeoning number of empirical investigations offer support for these types of positive effects from schools functioning as learning organizations (Lick, 2006; Orthner et al., 2006). I believe that understanding schools as learning organizations offers the potential to unlock the creative and dynamic processes that schools require to undergo fundamental and significant change initiatives. Only then do we believe that schools will begin to address the challenges they face in educating children and youths and in closing the significant gaps in educational achievement and life success. The phenomenon known as the learning organisations has during the past three decades been discussed widely in the literature (Khadra Rawabdeh, 2006; Moilanen, 2001, 2005; Hawkins, 1991; Watkins Marsick, 1993; Senge, 1990; Pedler, Burgoyne Boydell, 1991). Unfortunately, the concept of the learning organization remains abstract and elusive for many school level practitioners, which reflects, in part, a strong leaning toward a constructivist approach in the study of organizational learning. School personnel also have relatively few tools available to examine this aspect of their schools, and assessment is the first step in the evidence-based practice planning sequence. During the past century much has been learned about how the brain works and how students learn. We have also learned that how schools can be organized in what that can enhance the quality of learning that students experience and we know a great deal about the kinds of conditions that are necessary for change to occur. The issue in Indian Educational system is to find a way to create the conditions that will encourage the learning organization concept which is needed to transform Indian academic organizations. What is also clear is that leadership is a critical component of the transformation of education. However, the kind of leadership that is needed is fundamentally different than what has traditionally been the case. Leaders must be able to transform their academic institutions. This has been widely discussed the literature (Jones Rudd, 2007; Reed, 2006; Bartling Bartlett, 2005; CASEL, 2006; Bamburg, 1997; West, 1999; Telford, 1996; Barnett, Marsh Carven, 2003; Stander Rothman n, 2009) and hence the inclusion of this as a variable in this study. As small schools become more autonomous, they create new identities and establish unique school cultures. It is also believed that the schools culture is inextricably linked to classroom culture. Many researchers have explored the challenges of building school culture (Silver, 2003; Zilwa, 2007; Ferreira Hill, 2008; Niemann Kotzà ©, 2006; Thomas Willcoxson, 1998; Raywid, 2001;). The researches explore various approaches to the issue of organizational culture, including techniques from the business world, the connection to physical spaces, and the use of traditions (Berg Wilderom, 2004; Fard.et.al, 2007;). A schools culture includes the obvious elements of schedules, curriculum, demographics, and policies, as well as the social interactions that occur within those structures and give a school its look and feel as friendly, elite, competitive, inclusive, and so on. Just as culture is critical to understanding the dynamics behind any thriving community, organization, or business, t he daily realities and deep structure of school life hold the key to educational success. Reforms that strive for educational excellence are likely to fail unless they are meaningfully linked to the schools unique culture and hence the inclusion of this variable in this study. Teachers play an important role in the success of any school. The personal commitment of the teacher has a very strong influence in the smooth functioning of the school and the school to develop into a learning organization. Personal commitment could be commitment for ones own development and commitment for the development of the school and students. Research on commitment has generally focused on either the antecedents or the consequences of commitment. Early studies of commitment explored the antecedents of commitment and found four general antecedents, namely: personal characteristics, job characteristics, work experiences, and role-related characteristics (Mathieu and Hamel 1989; Mowday, Porter and Steers 1982). Some of the earlier studies also explored the role played by demographic variables on commitment. The demographic variables found to have influence on commitment are: age (Mathieu and Zajac 1990), organizational tenure (Mathieu and Hamel 1989), position tenure (Gregersen and Black 1992), and education (DeCotiis and Summers 1987). Furthermore, Glisson and Durick (1988) identified skill variety and role ambiguity as predictors of satisfaction and leadership, and the age of the organization as predictor of commitment. The impact of commitment on organizational level outcomes has also been explored in a number of studies. However, it is the consequence of affective commitment which is more often studied in the literature. This is because high levels of affective commitment are shown to be related to a number of positive behavioral level outcomes and job attitudes (Hislop 2003; Cooper-Hakim and Viswesvaran 2005). Further Organizational commitment and professional commitment of teachers in schools have been researched on (Sood Anand, 2009; Karakus Aslan, 2009; Weber, 1990; Coladarci, 1992; Menep. I, 2010; Iqbal, 2010; Borgei. et.al, 2010;). Although the study of commitment has been advanced from a range of theoretical perspectives, it is interesting to note that very few attempts have been made by researchers to work on personal commitment. The belief is that an understanding of the relationship between leadership, culture and commitment is necessary. As a teacher educator I think that personal com mitment of teachers is very important in transforming schools into a learning organization and no researches have been done in this area, hence the inclusion of the variable in this study. Conceptual Framework Schools as Learning Organization To present a theoretical framework in which the school as learning organization can be grounded, the study is using The learning disciplines (Senge et al., 1996:4). According to Peter Senge (1990: 3) learning organizations are: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦organizations where people continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where people are continually learning to see the whole together. While all people have the capacity to learn, the structures in which they have to function are often not conducive to reflection and engagement. Furthermore, people may lack the tools and guiding ideas to make sense of the situations they face. Organizations that are continually expanding their capacity to create their future require a fundamental shift of mind among their members.  For Peter Senge, real learning gets to the heart of what it is to be human. We become able to re -create ourselves. This applies to both individuals and organizations. Thus, for a learning organization it is not enough to survive. Survival learning or what is more often termed adaptive learning is important indeed it is necessary. But for a learning organization, adaptive learning must be joined by generative learning, learning that enhances our capacity to create (Senge 1990:14). The dimension that distinguishes learning from more traditional organizations is the mastery of certain basic disciplines or component technologies. The five that Peter Senge identifies are said to be converging to innovate learning organizations. They are: Systems thinking, Personal mastery, Mental models, Building shared vision Team learning Personal mastery According to Senge et al. (1996:194) the term mastery evolved from the medieval French, maitre, which meant someone who was exceptionally proficient and skilled a master of a craft. Maitre as it is used today means the capacity, not only to produce results, but also to master the principles that underpin the way an individual produces those results. Mastery is a commitment to be the best in whatever is done (Secretan, 1997:54). Educators who strive to become masters of their craft are often those who would be described as being committed to their work in their respective schools. According to Zecha (1994:6) and Kushman (1992:6), there are two types of educator commitment, namely organizational commitment and commitment to student learning which are effective ingredients for transforming schools into learning organisations. Mental models Research by Senge et al. (1996:235-236) indicates that mental models are subjective images, deeply ingrained assumptions, generalizations and stories that people carry in their minds about themselves, other people, institutions and events that take place in the world. These mental maps act as a filtering system for our judgments and influence how we take actions based on these judgments. If these mental maps or models are not questioned they could become blockages to change. To succeed in transforming schools into learning organizations it is important that individual educators learn how to unearth their internal pictures (subjective images) of the world and bring these to the surface and critically scrutinize them. This can be done if meaningful conversations are encouraged in the school, where educators expose their own thinking patterns and also listen to other colleagues. These conversations can influence individuals to shift their thinking patterns and see the other side of the story. Shared vision A shared vision is an all-encompassing world view which provides focus for an individual and the team concerning what is to be learnt and what is to be valued (Bierema Berdish, 1996:6). This shared vision answers the question: What will success look like? This question acts as a motivating force for sustained action to achieve individual and school goals. It is a guiding image of success formed in terms of a contribution to the school. According to Johnson and Johnson (1994:9) a shared vision creates a basic sense of sink or swim together among the members of the school. A powerful vision binds educators to mutual commitments through collaboration to achieve individual and school goals. Team learning The discipline of team learning starts with dialogue, which is the capacity of members of a team to suspend their assumptions and enter into a genuine thinking together. According to Senge et al., 1996:352), team learning is the discipline that has to do with learning about alignment. Alignment means functioning as a whole or in a cohesive group committed to a common purpose. This alignment is achieved through sustained dialogue that may result in knowledge sharing and recognizing interdependencies among team members (Murgatroyd Morgan, 1993:73). The discipline of dialogue involves learning how to recognize the patterns of interaction in teams that undermine learning. The patterns of defensiveness are often deeply ingrained in how a team operates. Therefore, the impact of team learning is the establishment of shared values, vision, mission, and core strategies to achieve individual and school goals. The fifth discipline, systems thinking, incorporates the other four learning discipl ines. Systems thinking Systems thinking is based on system dynamics; it is highly conceptual and provides ways of understanding practical school issues. It looks at systems in terms of particular types of cycles and it includes explicit system modeling of complex issues. The discipline of systems thinking teaches that in any social phenomenon it is important to look at the whole picture. In systems thinking the school is looked at as a system that is interconnected to different parts of life that intersect and influence each other. These interrelated parts are bound together in such a way that they become coherent to one another (French Bell, 1995:93). The components of a school include learners, educators, context, student learning processes and any identifiable component that affects learning. Therefore, the essence of systems thinking lies in a shift of mind to one that sees:à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ interrelationships rather than linear cause-effect chains; and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ processes of change rather than sn ap shots. The discipline of systems thinking starts with understanding the concept of feedback: that is how actions can reinforce or counteract (balance) each other. In trying to build effective learning environments, educators have to learn to see the deeper patterns and interrelationships of change. Leadership Leadership is a described as being one of social sciences most examined phenomena (Antonakis, Cianciolo, Sternberg, 2004). Shoemaker (1998) suggested that leadership is difficult to characterize as the field is punctured by inconclusive definitions as to the role and function of leadership. The latest chapter in the almost 100 year history of leadership research is dominated by the development of transformational leadership theory embodied in the Full Range of Leadership Model (Antonakis, et al., 2004; Bass, 1998). This approach to leadership focuses on the charismatic and affective elements of leadership. Northouse (2004) described transformational leadership as a process that changes and transforms individuals. It is concerned with emotions, values, ethics, standards, and long-term goals, and includes assessing followers motives, satisfying their needs, and treating them as full human beings (p. 169). Furthermore, as Bass (1985) advocated, by engaging in transformational leadershi p behaviors a leader transforms followers. In reality this means that followers are changed from being self-centered individuals to being committed members of a group, they are then able to perform at levels far beyond what normally might have been expected (Antonakis, et al., 2004, p.175). The model of transformational leadership includes a continuum of transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire forms of leadership. Each form characterizes aspects of the dynamic process of interaction between leader and follower but identifies certain patterns and features to distinguish transformational leadership from transactional and laissez-faire styles (Avolio, 1999). The transformational leader pays particular attention to others needs, which, in turn, raises followers levels of motivation (Avolio, 1999; Bass, 1998). Furthermore, a leader of this type encourages others to reach their full potential while also adopting a strong ethical characteristic. Whereas, transactional leaders, approach followers with an eye to exchanging one thing for another (Burns, 1978, p. 4), with the leaders use of either reward or punishment contingent on the followers completion or non-completion of assigned tasks. Laissez-faire leadership involves indifference and avoidance as a leader with this profile will avoid making decisions, abdicate responsibilities, divert attention from hard choices, and will talk about getting down to work, but never really does (Bass, 1998, p. 148). Senge proposes that in learning organizations the leaders new work should include a commitment to: being the organizations architect; providing stewardship; and being a teacher. For schools to become learning organizations, the schools leader(s) must accept responsibility for creating conditions that promote and enhance that learning. Principals must create opportunities for teachers to acquire information about what is occurring in the school and engage them in finding solutions to the problems that occur. A fundamental difference between the old view of leadership and that proposed by Senge is that the leader has a responsibility to create opportunities for teachers to learn about current research and apply that research in their classrooms in an environment that promotes learning. Perhaps most important of all, principals need to create a climate that promotes risk taking and eliminates the fear of failure. If these things can be done successfully schools will then possess the capacity to develop a shared vision about what needs to be done and engage in the kinds of activities that are needed to make their shared vision a reality. Organizational Culture Organizational culture has been defined from various perspectives (Carroll and Nafukho, 2006; Popper and Lipshitz, 1995; Shien, 1990; Alvesson, 2002; Cook and Yanow, 1993; Adler and Jelinek, 1996; Argris, 1999). According to Marguardt (2002), culture is an organizations values, beliefs, practices, rituals and customs. The culture of a learning organization habitually learns and works to integrate processes in all organization functions. In effect, the learning organizations culture is constantly evolving and travels along an infinite continuum in a harmonious learning environment. Ultimately, the goal is an exchange of useful knowledge leading to innovation, and improved learning public organizations. The various terms used in the context of organizational culture are: values, ethics, beliefs, ethos, climate, environmental culture. Ethics refers to normative aspects to what is socially desirable. Values, beliefs: attitudes and norms are interrelated. Interaction between beliefs and values results in attitude formation and then produces norms. Values and benefits are the core, while attitudes are the next layer, followed by the norms or behavior. Then these get institutionalized, or when they accumulate and integrate we have social phenomena. The eight important values relevant to institution building are openness, confrontation, trust, authenticity, pro-action, autonomy, collaboration and experimentation. Openness: openness can be defined as a spontaneous expression of feeling and thoughts, and the sharing of these without defensiveness. Openness is in both directions, receiving and giving. Both these may relate to ideas (including suggestions, feedback (including criticism), and feelings. For example, openness means receiving without reservation, and taking steps to encourage more feedbacks and suggestions from customers, colleagues and others. Similarly, it means giving without hesitation, ideas, information, feedback, feelings, etc. openness may also mean spatial openness, in terms of accessibility. Confrontation: confrontation can be defined as facing rather than shying away from problems. It also implies deeper analysis of interpersonal problems. All this involves taking up challenges. Trust: trust is not used in the moral sense. It is reflected in maintaining the confidentiality of information shared by others, and in not misusing it. It is also reflected in a sense of a assurance that others will help, when such help is needed and will honor mutual commitments and obligations. Trust is also reflected in accepting what another person says at face value, and not searching for ulterior motives. Trust is an extremely important ingredient in the institution building processes. Authenticity: authenticity is the congruence between what one feels, says and does. It is reflected in owning up ones mistakes, and in unreserved sharing of feelings. Authenticity is closer to openness. The outcome of authenticity in an organization is reduced distortion in communication. Pro-action: pro-action means taking initiative, preplanning and taking preventive action, and calculating the payoffs of an alternative course before taking action. The term pro-act can be contrasted with the term react. Pro-activity gives initiative to the person to start a new process or set a new pattern of behavior. Pro-activity involves unusual behavior. In this sense pro-activity means freeing oneself from, and taking action beyond immediate concerns. A person showing pro-activity functions at all the three levels of feeling, thinking and action. Autonomy: Autonomy is using and giving freedom to plan and act in ones own sphere. It means respecting and encouraging individual and role autonomy. It develops mutual respect and is likely to result in willingness to take on responsibility, individual initiative, better succession planning. The main indicator of autonomy is effective delegation in organization and reduction in references made to senior people for approval of planned actions. Collaboration: Collaboration is giving help to, and asking for help from, others. It means working together (individuals and groups to solve problems and team spirit. The outcome of collaboration includes timely help, team work, sharing of experiences, improved communication and improved resource sharing. Experimenting: Experimenting means using and encouraging innovative approaches to solve problems, using feedbacks for improving, taking a fresh look at things and encouraging creativity. Personal Commitment Mowday, Steers and Porter (1979, p. 226), defined commitment as the relative strength of an individuals identification with, and involvement in a particular organization. Although many definitions of commitment have been presented since the seminal work of Mowday et al. (1979), it is the conception of Meyer and Allen (1991), which identifies three distinctive dimensions affective, normative, and continuance that has been the cornerstone of extant theorizing in the area of commitment (Herrbach, 2006). Mowday, Porter and Steers (1982) Model Commitment (Attitudinal Commitment), to an organization involves three components: (a) a strong belief in and acceptance of organizational goals and values, (b) a willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organization, and (c) a strong desire to maintain membership in the organization (Mowday et al., 1982). Research on organizational commitment has been examined primarily in relation to labour turnover (Ferris Aranya, 1983; Hom, Katerberg Hulin, 1979; Huselid Day, 1991; Mowday, Steers Porter, 1979; OReilly Caldwell, 1980; Wiener Vardi, 1980; Steers, 1977; Stumpf Hartman, 1984). Meyer and Allen (1997) Model Meyer and Allen (1997) view organizational commitment as a three component concept. The three components in their model are Affective, Continuous, and Normative. The affective commitment describes the emotional attachment an individual has with the organization, their identification with the goals and values of the organization and the level of their involvement (Zanagro, 2001). Affective commitment is taken as a construct closely related to identification (Bergami Bagozzi, 2000). Continuance commitment is based on the cost that an employee associates with leaving the organizations, such as reduction in pay, pension, benefits, or facilities (Herbiniak Alluto, 1972). Normative commitment is associated with employees feelings of obligation to continue employment due to the work culture and other socially accepted norms (Weiner Gechman, 1977). The less common approach to viewing commitment is in terms of obligation. Of the three components least is known about the development of norm ative commitment (Meyer Allen, 1997). The three dimensions highlight commitment from the perspectives of attachment, obligation, and necessity respectively. From the above conceptual framework, a model is drawn for better understanding. Organizational Culture Openness Confrontation Trust Authenticity Proaction Autonomy Collaboration Experimentation Leadership Transformational Transactional Laissez-Faire Personal Commitment Own Development Student Institutional Development Learning Organization Personal Mastery Mental Models Shared Vision Team Learning Systems Thinking Review of Literature Schools as Learning Organization Bowen et.al., 2007-Assessing the Functioning of Schools as Learning Organizations: Using data from the population of employees in 11 middle schools in North Carolina and building on an earlier analysis, this study examines the reliability and validity of a new assessment tool for assessing schools as learning organizations: the School Success Profile Learning Organization. The results align with the conceptual model that informed the development of the measure, including support for the two hypothesized learning organization components: actions and sentiments. Kelleher Michael, 2007 Learning Organization: The author designed a model for a learning organization: The model of the learning organization, with its three dimensional approach, proposes strategies within the domains of individual, team and organizational learning. He concluded by saying if lifelong learning is to become a reality, it will become increasingly important to ensure that strategies and actions support the development of learning organizations. If overlooked, the world of work could well be that area of peoples lives where learning is not explicit, supported and developed. Moloi K.C..et al., 2006 Educators perceptions of the school as a learning organization in the Vanderbijlpark-North District, South Africa: This article outlines the principal findings of research that sought to provide a comprehensive understanding of schools as learning organizations in the Vanderbijl Park-North District of the Gauteng province of South Africa. The quantitative research methodology used was of major importance in obtaining data that were grounded largely on the theoretical framework of learning organizations as wel

Strange Fits of Passion Essay -- Literary Analysis, Shakespeare

The lunatic, the lover, and the poet, are of imagination all compact. ~William Shakespeare, Mid-Summer Night's Dream, 1595, this quote by Shakespeare is a definitive illustration of Wordsworth’s persona in his poem Strange Fits of Passion I have known. In the poem the speaker embarks on a moonlight horse ride to his lover lucy’s cottage; it is during his ride there that the speaker engages in â€Å"lunatic† thoughts imagining lucy being dead when he arrives to see her. The poem is uniquely characterized by the adverse effects of love on a person, as well as how nature has an effect on human emotion; the latter being a staple theme in many of Wordsworth’s literary pieces. In the first stanza the speaker begins to vocalize the thought he had experienced while travelling to his lover’s cottage. Strange fits of passion have I known: And I will dare to tell, But in the Lover’s ear alone, What once to me befell. The speaker describes his sudden outburst of emotion as â€Å"strange† as he is keenly aware that his thoughts of lucy being dead are peculiar. It is common that when in love a person may pay heed to their imagination moreso than reality ; The line â€Å"But in the Lover’s ear aloneâ€Å"(Line three) is the speaker saying that he will share his â€Å"strange† thoughts but only to those who, like him, are in the throes of passion for they would understand the affects love can have on a person Wordsworth is known for his references to nature in many of his poems , the second stanza in this poem doesn’t stray from that commonality. When she I loved looked every day Fresh as a rose in June, I to her cottage bent my way, ... ...n his chest. The final stanza at last reveals the speaker’s thoughts that have been accumulating throughout the poem. What fond and wayward thoughts will slide Into a Lover’s head! â€Å"O mercy!† to myself I cried, â€Å"If Lucy should be dead!† Appalled at this final revelation it is apparent that the speaker has experienced similar thoughts and that sometimes despite great efforts your imagination can steer your thoughts to the contrary of rational thinking â€Å"What fond and wayward thoughts will slide ( Line 25) Into a Lover’s head! â€Å"(Line 26). Strange fits of passion is another poem by Wordsworth that uses nature as a medium when conveying human emotion but provides a unique portrayal of the absurdities of emotional experience that can evolve from passionate love.

Toyota Production System and Kanban System

This article was downloaded by: [210. 212. 186. 193] On: 17 July 2012, At: 23:18 Publisher: Taylor & Francis Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK International Journal of Production Research Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www. tandfonline. com/loi/tprs20 Toyota production system and Kanban system Materialization of just-in-time and respect-for-human system Y.SUGIMORI , K. KUSUNOKI , F. CHO & S. UCHIKAWA a a a a a Production Control Department, Toyota Motor Co. , Ltd, 1 Toyota-cho, Toyota-shi, 471, Japan. Version of record first published: 28 Mar 2007 To cite this article: Y. SUGIMORI, K. KUSUNOKI, F. CHO & S. UCHIKAWA (1977): Toyota production system and Kanban system Materialization of just-in-time and respect-for-human system, International Journal of Production Research, 15:6, 553-564 To link to this article: h ttp://dx. doi. org/10. 1080/00207547708943149PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Full terms and conditions of use: http://www. tandfonline. com/page/terms-and-conditions This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date.The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. INT. J. PROD. RES. , 1977, VOL. 15, No. 6, 553-564 Toyota production system and Kanban sy stem Materialization of just-in-time and respect-for-human system Y. SUGIMORIt, K. KUSUNOKIt, F.OHOt and 8. UOHIKAWAt The Toyota Production System and Kanban System introduced in this paper was developed by the Vice-President of Toyota Motor Company. Mr. Taiichi Ohno, and it was under his guidance that these unique production systems have become deeply rooted in Toyota Moter Company in the past 20 years. There are two major distinctive features in these systems. One of these is the' just-in-time production I, a specially important factor in an assembly industry such as automotive manufacturing. In. this type of production,

The Art of Choosing Well by Pierre Wolff

Discernment is defined to be the act or process of exhibiting keen insight and good judgment. Interestingly, the bible is rife with accounts and teachings how important discernment is to the people of God. Apostles, for example, were witnesses how Holy Spirit gave them the gift of discernment in the New Testament. The action of the apostles of continuing what Jesus told them to do was discernment in itself; discernment in action, that is. â€Å"Discernment can be defined to be the calling on the Holy Spirit to lead or give direction on a matter,† says Spirithome.com.Moreover, Jesus Christ himself was a discernment personified. In Luke 11:9 he says to His people, â€Å"So I say t you: Ask and it will be given to you; seek and you will find; knock and the door will be opened to you. † The words alone are an encouragement that people always have the good judgment of everything, and that in their judgment blessings await. Author Pierre Wolff in his book The Art of Choosing Well talks about this very thing – discernment. Wolff presents the ways of choosing and deciding wisely rooted in the different works of St.Ignatius of Loyola. Seeking God, St. Ignatius believed, is not meant to wait for visions, but had to seek Him in an intelligent and humble way and then by His grace and time, everything will be given and answered. Moreover, Wolff never fails to be practical and at the same time simple. He stresses different basic principles applicable to contemporary people, such as taking adequate time to listen to both your heart and mind, and clarify your most innermost held values.Although his teachings rooted in the Catholic-based faith, this, however, can be applicable to people of different faith (or lack thereof). Discernment or decision-making, to begin with, is a universal trait necessary for us as we deal our life. There are so many things to put to consider when discerning about something. In 1 Corinthians 13: 1-3, discernment is characterized to be governed by love, for it is not, it’s worthless. 1 Corinthians 12-3 is bolder in its emphasis of Christ, discernment â€Å"centers us onto Jesus the Christ and Lord, and His good news.†But Ephesians 4:11-12 is more general and more empowering; discernment it says â€Å"builds up the church and its members, giving it power, wisdom, character, boldness, and unity. Other people sometimes mixed up their decisions with their own veiled interests. Wolff summarizes some of St. Ignatius works to know if we are truly discerning the right things thus: We must desire to do God’s will, open to God at the moment of discerning, know what God is like, and we must be a person who prays.Furthermore, there are three ways of making a choice: Revelation (or God is speaking to you), Reasoning (Weighing the pros and cons of our choices and putting yourself on someone’s shoes to be able to know better the right thing), Discernment (or the time where â€Å"much light an d understanding are derived through experience,† says Ignatius. ) True enough, discernment is more than just a skill and process. It is a gift from God, from the Holy Spirit†¦ and this can be acquired and developed through asking God and continuing it through training and experience.Growing in discernment is a challenge for everyone. And the price is a peace of mind. To grow in discernment requires everyone to work on it like prayer; to know deeply what’s inside our thoughts – if it’s God’s or if it’s not. One way of nurturing it is through Daily Consciousness Examen, which is recommended by the Church. This basically can be done through asking the Holy Spirit to guide you always, to look back on your day and recognize the blessings God has given you, asking God to teach you, and asking yourself if you’re acting what the Lord told you to do.

Nguyen Meaning and Origin

Nguyen Meaning and Origin Nguyen is the most common surname in Vietnam and among the top 100 last names in the United States, Australia, and France. Meaning musical instrument and actually rooted in Chinese, Nguyen is an interesting name that youll encounter throughout the world. Alternate spellings include  Nyguyen, Ruan, Yuen, and Yuan. What Is the Origin of Nguyen? Nguyen stems from the Chinese word  ruan  (a string instrument that is plucked). In Vietnam, the family name Nguyen is connected to the royal dynasties. It is said that during the Tran Dynasty (1225–1400), many members of the Ly family of the prior dynasty changed their name to Nguyen to avoid persecution. The Nguyen family had a place of prominence as early as the 16th century, but they would rule during the last of the dynasties. The Nguyen Dynasty lasted from 1802 until 1945, when Emperor Bao Dai abdicated. By some estimates, approximately 40 percent  of Vietnamese people have the surname Nguyen. It is, without a doubt,  the most common Vietnamese family name. Nguyen can be used as a first name as well as a surname. Also, keep in mind that in Vietnamese it is traditional for the surname to be used before an individuals given name. Nguyen Is Common Worldwide Nguyen is the seventh most common family name in Australia, the 54th most popular in France, and the 57th most popular surname in America. These statistics may be surprising until you recall the relationship each country has had with Vietnam. For instance, France had colonized Vietnam as early as 1887 and fought the First Indochina War from 1946 until 1950. Shortly after that, the U.S. entered the conflict and the Vietnam War (or Second Indochina War) began. These associations led many Vietnamese refugees to immigrate to both countries during and after the conflicts.  Australia saw an influx of refugees after the second of these wars when the country revised its immigration policy. Its estimated that nearly 60,000 Vietnamese refugees settled in Australia between 1975 and 1982. How Is Nguyen Pronounced? For native English speakers, pronouncing the name Nguyen can be a challenge. Since its such a popular name, though, learn how to say it as best as you can. The most common mistake is to pronounce the y. The best way to explain the pronunciation of Nguyen is as a single syllable: ngwin. Say it fast and dont emphasize the letters ng. It really helps to hear it out loud,  such as at  this YouTube video. Famous People Named Nguyen Damien Nguyen- U.S. actorScotty Nguyen- professional poker playerDat Nguyen- U.S.  football player Nguyen Sinh Cung- Ho Chi Minhs birth name

The Poetics of Popular Music Essays - Lyrics, Poetry, Lyricist

The Poetics of Popular Music Essays - Lyrics, Poetry, Lyricist The Poetics of Popular Music Response #3 (5%) My Values Length: 300-350 words +/- (not counting the lyrics) A central theme in High Fidelity is that the culture you consume (music, TV, movies, etc.) can sometimes heavily contribute to defining your values. For better or for worse, the messages found within pop music serve to determine, among other things, Robs view of love and what, to him, a relationship should be. Analyze one song not in the coursepack that, positively or negatively, best defines one of your values. They can either be lyrics that represent something close to/exactly what you believe about a subject or idea; conversely, they can be lyrics that, by being clearly opposite to your values, serve to contrast with what you do in fact believe. Quote the lyrics directly and make clear and specific connections between your value and its articulation or not in your chosen song. Also, you must make direct and clear references to at least one technique used by the lyricist(s) and its effect on the lyrics as a whole. Remember: were thinking exclusively of the lyrics here. How the song is sung, its genre, bio of the lyricist, etc. are always irrelevant and should not be considered. Lastly, as always, choose your words carefully. Please include the lyrics in full (which will not be part of your word count) after your responses. 12 point font double-spaced to be printed and handed in at the beginning of class 8:30 a.m. on Friday, November 7th. Questions? MIO me, Neil Briffett, anytime.

Apush Frq Outlines

Follow the directions on the opposite side of this assignment for FRQ Outlines. They are considered a TEST score, each question is worth 40 points (if there are 4 outlines, then it is a 160 point test). These outlines are due the first day of class. 1. Analyze the cultural and economic responses of TWO of the following groups to the Indians of North America before 1750. British French Spanish 2. Analyze the differences between the Spanish settlements in the Southwest and the English Colonies in New England in the 17th century in terms of TWO of the following: Politics Religion Economic Development 3. How did economic, geographic and social factors encourage the growth of slavery as an important part of the economy of the southern colonies between 1607 – 1775? 4. Compare the ways in which religion shaped the development of colonial society (to 1740) in TWO of the following regions: New England Chesapeake Middle Atlantic 5. Analyze the impact of the Atlantic Trade Routes established in the mid 1600’s on economic development in the British North American colonies. Consider the period 1650 – 1750. 6. Compare the ways in which TWO of the following reflected tensions in colonial society. Bacon’s Rebellion (1676) Pueblo Revolt (1680) Salem Witchcraft Trials (1692) Stono Rebellion (1739) 7. â€Å"Geography was the primary factor in shaping the development of the British colonies in North America. † Assess the validity of this statement. 8. Compare and contrast the culture and economy of the southern colonies with that of the New England Colonies. 9. Early encounters between American Indians and European colonists led to a variety of relationships among the different cultures. Analyze how the actions taken by BOTH American Indians and European colonists shaped those relationships in TWO of the following regions. Confine your answer to the 1600s. New EnglandSpanish Southwest ChesapeakeNew York and New France 10. In what ways did ideas and values held by Puritans influence the political, economic and social development of the New England colonies from 1630 through the 1660’s?

Superbad Movie Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Superbad Movie - Essay Example Classic Hollywood movies were work of art that was devoted close to theoretical and critical attention of the movie plot and cinematic text and ideology. Genre analysis can be problematical though. What is called analysis or criticism is often little more than making note of superficial similarities or differences amongst films. This is true across film criticism in general. Rick Altman calls this approach to genre criticism the semantic approach—a focus on the more superficial aspects of films that fit into a given genre. A semantic examination would point out the character types, aesthetics, plot lines, etc., which are common to the films. The inevitable question that must arise from such an assessment is, â€Å"Why bother?† What good does it do to point out that noir films all make extensive use of light and shadow plot development for example, or that Westerns usually feature saloons? In this case genre analysis is no different from a similar analysis of a given individual film. To be valuable, genre analysis must bring deeper issues to the surface. In the context of this deeper, broader method of analysis, I think that genre criticism can be very useful. Qualities or incidences and similarities that seem insignificant in individual films can take on more meaning when connected with similar characteristics of other films in the genre—if we have shown the existence of the genre itself. So while the semantic approach is necessary, it is a means to an end—the end being the syntactic analysis which can then be taken up, and which can tell us something about the societies in which the films are produced and consumed. These high school comedy romance movies are new genre and all similar movies are based on almost the same story line. The existence of particular genres themselves is significant as well. Given that a group of films of this high school genre share a common lot of significant characteristics, we can and should then ask why this is

Anne Bradstreet Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Anne Bradstreet - Essay Example Apart from the tough living conditions, Anne Bradstreet led a challenging life, always keeping up with the demands of being the mother of eight children and the wife of a Puritan Governor. She had to uproot her household on numerous occasions and move to even more distant, uncivilized and unknown areas so that her husband and father could increase their properties and gain even more political power in their colony. Even though Anne Bradstreet's father was a very powerful, prominent leader of the Puritan community, he inspired his daughter to become a poet. Thomas Dudley was amazingly encouraging of his Bradstreet's literally appetite and never opposed her desire to either learn or write; she was very educated for a woman of her times. So it is very understandable why she dedicated so much of her best work to him, "her "Quaternions," or poems on groups of four: the four elements, the four humors, the four ages of man, the four seasons of the year, and the four monarchies-the Assyrian, the Persian, the Grecian, and the Roman" were all him. (Martin 14). This could be the key reason that despite the severe demands of Puritanism, Anne Bradstreet was the first woman poet to have her work published in the New World. Her first publication, "The Tenth Muse Lately sprung up in America, By a Gentlewoman in those parts" was not recognized for best poems and it was published in 1650 by Steven Bowtell. Her brother-in-law, Rev. John Woodbridge had taken a manuscript of her poems to London, in 1647 and had them published without her authorization. Many think the reason he did this was to prove that females could be educated, write and published without coming into direct competition or becoming inferior to men. Bradstreet was caught wholly off-guard and was a little embarrassed too, not by her work itself but simply by the publication of it. It is best explained in her own words: "I cast thee by as one unfit for light, Thy visage was so irksome in my sight; Yet being mine own, at length affection would Thy blemishes amend, if so I could: I washed thy face, but more defects I saw, And rubbing off a spot still made a flaw." (Millier and Parini 4). However by 1666 she was already hopeful of publishing a second edition. No such manuscript exists but the 1678 publication of "Several Poems", "By a Gentlewoman in New England . . . Corrected by the Author and enlarged by an Addition of several other Poems found amongst her Papers after her Death" shows the feminist poet at the height of her literally best. Bradstreet lived in a society where they needed their religious beliefs to survive the rigorous stress of the New World; their concrete faith dictated that God had a plan for everyone was what got them through. While Bradstreet's faith was absolute, there were times when she struggled to keep faith. In her spiritual autobiography addressed to her children, she confesses that on occasion she wondered about the truth of the Scriptures and questioned the existence of God and His plans. "I never saw any miracles to confirm me," she says in her autobiography and adds, "and those which I read of how did [I] know but they were feigned." (Lonsdale 185). She ultimately quelled her fears and subdued her doubts not through theological reasoning but through a poet's spirit. Initially Bradstreet's writings were not

Immigration Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Immigration - Research Paper Example The idea of pull factors is based on the main pull that causes immigrants to come to a nation. There are seven main areas that create a pull for immigrants to go to another country. Economy is the most important reason why many migrate, specifically with the desire to gain more stability with wealth in another country with the reasons associated with the need to keep a family safe through a sense of wealth. Other reasons include network effects, labor market, education and training, health care and integration. It is known that there is not one dominate reason why the pull factor exists, but instead most that are drawn to another country are interested in the several reasons that are associated with assimilation into another area. It is also known that these driving forces change the demographics from a given society while changing the outcome in different communities (Lowell, 61). The push factors are another effect which changes the immigration level. The push factors are defined as a drive that causes an individual or family to leave their country to move to another area. A common reason for push factors is based on the political changes within a region, often which are a result of instability and problems within society. Individuals may be forced to leave the region because of conflict and political upheavals which are occurring, as well as a sense of disagreement with the current society. The push factors are furthered with societal trends, such as disagreements with societal values and thinking that leads one into a different country. Other concepts relate to education which is noted through immigration fluctuations such as the brain drain. The inability for a country to offer the same incentives as other areas can push a set of individuals into another country for more opportunity (Cornelius, Rosenblum, 99). The push factors are mostly

Target Market and Competitive Analysis Research Paper

Target Market and Competitive Analysis - Research Paper Example The majority of clients, approximately 60 percent, will consist of those with strong family values, with respect for traditionalism in politics and socialization, with a recognized propensity for brand loyalty. Under the VALS 2 psychographic model, the largest target market will be the Believers, those who are conservative and conventional individuals valuing predictable and trusted brands (Boone and Kurtz 217). The secondary target market will be characterized with each expansion opportunity by age demographics, population density in certain urban versus rural regions, and income demographics. In some key regions that have the most profitability opportunities, preliminary qualitative market research to identify key characteristics and market needs will be conducted. potential of higher resource buyers (e.g. the Believer markets). Behavioral characteristics for these markets will be considerably important for the creation of promotional materials to have impact on attitude and brand personality. The high volume of stresses and anxiety for the children of older adults can bring much more visibility to the business if these relationship development opportunities are included in targeted advertising. Because the goal of Off 2 Gran Grans is to establish a brand with dedication, credibility, trust and consistency, the reliability and conventionalism of the business can create emotional, social and psychological connections with the most opportunistic markets. There are very low franchising requirements associated with this type of business model, with initial investments between only $58,000 and $95,000 and liquid investor assets of only $39,000 (Entrepreneur.com 1). The expansion opportunities for Off 2 Gran Grans will provide additional support for achieving more market presence and producing consistent, streamlined promotional materials in widely-dispersed markets across the

ECON IP2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

ECON IP2 - Essay Example The demand for cigarettes are also not as elastic as the demand for laptops since smokers tend to be addicted and therefore the amount of cigarettes they purchase are not as responsive to prices as laptops are. Finally, among the products considered the per unit price of laptops tend to be highest and hence the opportunity cost of the expenditure is highest in case of laptops as well. Therefore, the demand for laptops tends to be substantially more elastic. The importance of elasticity for business primarily is because of its significance in pricing strategies. Price hikes or price cuts do not affect the revenues for goods whose demands are inelastic. Therefore, it is not advisable to reduce prices to try and induce customers into buying products which have inelastic demands. On the other hand customers tend to respond highly to price cuts in case of products that have high price elasticity. Since maximizing revenues is one of the primary targets for businesses, and how price changes affect revenues are dependent upon price elasticity of demand, it is very important for businesses to know the type of demand its product has. An increase in national income would not affect the price elasticity of demand. Although it may lead to rise in overall demands, it will have no impact on the responsiveness of demand to changes in price. Elasticity of supply is simply the responsiveness of quantity supplied to price changes. It is the percentage change in quantity supplied caused by a percentage change in price. The factors that influence the elasticity of supply are: a) Time - since it is not feasible to expand production immediately in response to a price change, although in the long run such expansion is possible, supply tends to be relatively inelastic over the short run and more elastic over the longer run. b) Duration of production – typically goods that take longer to produce, such as agricultural output (longer production cycles) tend to have

Immigration Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Immigration - Research Paper Example The idea of pull factors is based on the main pull that causes immigrants to come to a nation. There are seven main areas that create a pull for immigrants to go to another country. Economy is the most important reason why many migrate, specifically with the desire to gain more stability with wealth in another country with the reasons associated with the need to keep a family safe through a sense of wealth. Other reasons include network effects, labor market, education and training, health care and integration. It is known that there is not one dominate reason why the pull factor exists, but instead most that are drawn to another country are interested in the several reasons that are associated with assimilation into another area. It is also known that these driving forces change the demographics from a given society while changing the outcome in different communities (Lowell, 61). The push factors are another effect which changes the immigration level. The push factors are defined as a drive that causes an individual or family to leave their country to move to another area. A common reason for push factors is based on the political changes within a region, often which are a result of instability and problems within society. Individuals may be forced to leave the region because of conflict and political upheavals which are occurring, as well as a sense of disagreement with the current society. The push factors are furthered with societal trends, such as disagreements with societal values and thinking that leads one into a different country. Other concepts relate to education which is noted through immigration fluctuations such as the brain drain. The inability for a country to offer the same incentives as other areas can push a set of individuals into another country for more opportunity (Cornelius, Rosenblum, 99). The push factors are mostly

ECON IP2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

ECON IP2 - Essay Example The demand for cigarettes are also not as elastic as the demand for laptops since smokers tend to be addicted and therefore the amount of cigarettes they purchase are not as responsive to prices as laptops are. Finally, among the products considered the per unit price of laptops tend to be highest and hence the opportunity cost of the expenditure is highest in case of laptops as well. Therefore, the demand for laptops tends to be substantially more elastic. The importance of elasticity for business primarily is because of its significance in pricing strategies. Price hikes or price cuts do not affect the revenues for goods whose demands are inelastic. Therefore, it is not advisable to reduce prices to try and induce customers into buying products which have inelastic demands. On the other hand customers tend to respond highly to price cuts in case of products that have high price elasticity. Since maximizing revenues is one of the primary targets for businesses, and how price changes affect revenues are dependent upon price elasticity of demand, it is very important for businesses to know the type of demand its product has. An increase in national income would not affect the price elasticity of demand. Although it may lead to rise in overall demands, it will have no impact on the responsiveness of demand to changes in price. Elasticity of supply is simply the responsiveness of quantity supplied to price changes. It is the percentage change in quantity supplied caused by a percentage change in price. The factors that influence the elasticity of supply are: a) Time - since it is not feasible to expand production immediately in response to a price change, although in the long run such expansion is possible, supply tends to be relatively inelastic over the short run and more elastic over the longer run. b) Duration of production – typically goods that take longer to produce, such as agricultural output (longer production cycles) tend to have

The Great Gatsby Essay Example for Free

The Great Gatsby Essay In the novel, The Great Gatsby, F. Scott Fitzgerald uses the character of Nick Carraway as his mouthpiece, his own little spy in the lives of the characters in the novel to relate back the events happening. Because of this, there are a number of things which we need to bear in mind about his narration such as to what degree it could be biased and how the first person descriptive effects the way that we portray Nick. First being introduced into the novel, Fitzgerald has Nick Carraway talk about some advice that his father had given him when he was younger, therefore enlightening us to the way that he was brought up and how it has affected the way he is now. He still remembers the words: â€Å"Whenever you feel like criticizing any one, just remember that all the people in this world haven’t had the advantages that you’ve had. † This reveals to us that Nick is not of lower class and is very well educated, which is further reinforced by the fact that he went to Yale, one of the most highly esteemed colleges in the country. Nick explains how doesn’t judge a person, which has therefore â€Å"opened up† people to him as they shared their troubles with him. However, we also get the impression that he is uninterested in the petty problems of people’s lives, as the comparison of â€Å"curious natures† to â€Å"veteran bores† is used, suggesting that while some of the people who confided in him intrigued him, others may have just left him sitting there offering mild condolences, a â€Å"victim† who’s subject to listen to their inconveniences when they were â€Å"unsought†: he didn’t look for people to come and talk to him, they came to him. Whether this proves that he is a trustworthy character is debatable; if he told everyone about the â€Å"secret griefs† that he was privy to then he wouldn’t be trusted and have people coming to speak to him, and yet he frequently deceived the people who sought after him, feigning â€Å"sleep, preoccupation or a hostile levity† when they tried to speak, which makes you wonder what else he could have done in the lines of deception, and whether or not it went further than just lying to avoid people. It would seem that he is very good at getting along with people in public and on the surface, whilst analysing them in private, to us, the readers. The reader learns soon on that Nick is from the Middle West, but moved further east to West Egg where he’s living now to learn the bond business. West Egg and East Egg are both enormously wealthy suburbs of New York City, located on Long Island where they face the ocean, but there is a clear differentiation between the two. East Egg is the home of the aristocratic people with inherited fortunes gathered over generations, roots running deep in American society. These people place great value on tradition, family background, manners and social convention, and look at people who weren’t born into their kind of wealth – â€Å"old money† – with contempt. Those who live in West Egg are also very wealthy but they lack the sense of entitlement that those in East Egg have, as they earned their money and weren’t born into it. They aren’t as ‘polished’ or ‘refined’ in their manners, and can therefore never fit in with those from the East Egg; they lack the background of a well established family. Nick himself is â€Å"descended from the Dukes of Buccleuch†, so therefore has a rather esteemed lineage in his own right, and yet he lives a rather modest life in the West Egg in a small house he describes as an â€Å"eyesore† next to the large mansion next door belonging to Gatsby; he isn’t drowning in wealth himself, but he is connected to people like his neighbour, Gatsby, and Tom and Daisy Buchanan. Because of this, he has an insight in to what happens in the lives of these people, and this is what Fitzgerald will have intended: Nick relates what goes on from the inside, acting as the eyes, ears and mouthpiece for Fitzgerald. Although the intention of using Nick as the narrator may have been for him to give a rather objective viewpoint of the story’s events, that wasn’t truly the way that it was portrayed. Yes, he’s an outsider compared to the rest of the characters, having only recently moved to the West Egg himself and therefore not knowing too much about the lifestyles that these people are living, other than the fact that they are rich. However, he has former opinions of the characters he meets in chapter one which may or may not have clouded the way in which he describes them. Daisy Buchanan is his second cousin once removed, and it is clear that he is taken by her: he describes her as â€Å"charming† with a â€Å"low, thrilling voice† that was difficult to forget, which is a rather biased opinion of her; of course, we are still shown some of her carelessness and snobbish ways, but they are mainly through her actions, little things between the lines that could be easily overlooked if one didn’t know what to look for. Tom Buchanan on the other hand is introduced differently; through Nick, Fitzgerald first describes how he is a wealthy, athletic figure, listing his achievements and purchases before describing the man himself: he is portrayed as an arrogant man, having a â€Å"supercilious manner† and â€Å"established dominance†, thinking he’s superior to everyone around him and especially the black race as he describes how thinks it’s up to themselves, â€Å"the dominant race† to make sure that they keep the control and not any other races. He is generally described much more negatively by the narration of Nick, and this influences the way in which we perceive Tom as the automatic ‘bad guy’ in Chapter One. This perception is only accentuated when the reader finds out that he is cheating on Daisy with a woman in New York, and that men at New Haven (the college that he and Nick both attended) â€Å"hated his guts. † It is clear that he is a powerful man as his physique is referred to numerously, like the â€Å"enormous power† of his body and the â€Å"great pack of muscles† he had. He filled his boots until he â€Å"strained at the top lacing†, which could be likened to the saying that someone is too big for their boots – Tom is, both in the literal sense and the way in which he thinks that he is more important and powerful than everyone else. Heck, Fitzgerald even describes how Nick seems to think he radiates the â€Å"I’m stronger and more of a man than you are† vibe! Considering the fact that Fitzgerald has Nick introduce himself as an honest man who is â€Å"inclined to reserve all judgements†, we as readers don’t really get this impression from him in the first chapter. Not only does he already have – possibly subconscious – opinions of the Buchanans, he also has â€Å"unaffected scorn† for his neighbour Jay Gatsby, and all that he represents. However, he also says that there is â€Å"something gorgeous† about him, highlighting the fact that not only is he contradicting his previous statement when he said that he reserves judgements, but he’s contradicting his own opinion of the same man in only the next sentence! Because of all these things combined, it is uncertain to what degree the narration of Nick Carraway is actually reliable, as his own opinions can get in the way and make the narration biased. Overall, I think that Nick is portrayed as a fairly honest man in this first chapter of the novel, The Great Gatsby, but because of a few underlying things that could be picked up on, that may not be the full extent of his character. His opinion of things, even in the first chapter, contradicts itself; this not only puts into question which opinion we should agree with, but also makes us doubt his reliability as a narrator, which then in turn makes us wonder to what extent the story is accurate and in how much of it has had the illusion of the lifestyle the characters are living take over the actual reality.

Assessing financial management within Tesco plc

Assessing financial management within Tesco plc 1.1 Determine how to obtain financial data and assess it validity Tesco is Britains leading retailer. We are one of the top three retailers in the world, operating over 2,711 stores globally and employing 366,000 people. Tesco operates in 11 countries outside the UK Republic of Ireland, Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Turkey and Poland in Europe; China, Japan, Malaysia, South Korea and Thailand in Asia. Everyday life keeps changing and the Tesco team excels at responding to those changes. Tesco has grown from a market stall, set up by Jack Cohen in1919. The name Tesco first appeared above a shop in Edgware in 1929 and since then the company has grown and developed, responding to new opportunities and pioneering many innovations. By the early 1990s we faced strong competitors and needed a new strategy. We were good at buying and selling goods but had begun to forget the customers. Sir Terry Leahy, who became Chief Executive in 1997, asked customers the simple question what are we doing wrong? . We then invested in the things that matter to customers. For example, we launched our loyalty scheme Club card and Tesco.com, our internet home shopping service. Going the extra mile for customers has been key to our growth. We want to make customers lives easier and better in any way we can. Most plcs have their Annual reports available from their own web sites .. look for Investor Pages or Corporate News etc. Others can be downloaded as PDFs from sites like FTSE, Yahoo Finance etc. It is well known that high employee satisfaction contributes significantly to high customer satisfaction, which drives intent to return, and therefore, financial results. High employee satisfaction expresses itself as enthusiasm in ones work, which directly impacts the experience of the customer. Likewise, high customer satisfaction expresses itself as enthusiasm toward a particular organization, its products or services, which directly impacts the intent to return rate. It is a short leap, then, to understand how a high intent to return rate among customers impacts financial results. But with so many variables affecting employee and customer satisfaction, how does one determine those of greatest importance, so that interventions aimed at increasing satisfaction are of maximum effectiveness? The answer is in the root cause analysis derived from employee and customer survey data, (West, S.J.DR, 2009). 1.2 Apply different types of analytical tools and techniques to a range of financial documents and formulate conclusions about performance levels and needs of stakeholders When implementing human performance improvement, most organizations hope and expect that it will have an effect on the bottom line that there will be a financial benefit that justifies the improvement effort. But human performance is a complex entity, and translating changes in performance into quantitative and financial results is often a daunting task. In the ideal, it is desirable to generate a causal chain of evidence from the intervention to the final financial impact. For instance, consider a simple performance improvement intervention such as a training program. In order for the program to affect the financial bottom line of the organization, we must first assure that the training is in an area that is relevant to the bottom line. It is, after all, possible to do training on topics that are irrelevant to financial performance. Assuming that the training is relevant, we might expect that it first needs to affect the knowledge and skills of the learners. Even if it does, it will not be translated into human performance unless the learner is motivated to use the knowledge. Even if the learner wants to use the new knowledge, there are any number of factors that can prevent them from doing so, or cause them to try under less than optimal conditions. Even if the learner performs perfectly, this performance may not affect the overall performance of the business (e.g., how efficiently departments process products). And, even if there is an effect on busi ness performance, there may not be a corresponding financial impact (depending on how relevant the business performance is to financial results). We see that in most performance improvement contexts, the causal chain from the program to final result is often a long and difficult one. The method described in this paper falls into the class of statistical estimation approaches to financial returns. It has several key advantages over other methods of estimating financial returns: It requires only a small investment of client participant time typically less than one hour to determine reasonable estimates of project-level financial benefits. It calculates boundaries on financial return estimates (i.e., lower and upper limits), rather than just a single value. It integrates financial return estimation with human performance measurement at all levels. In this approach, project costs are estimated using traditional accounting procedures. Project-level financial benefits are estimated by a client participant group using an iterative Delphi methodology. These cost and benefit estimates are proportionally distributed across performance goals and objectives and weighted by observed performance. The performance-weighted financial returns (i.e., Benefit/cost ratio and ROI) can then be presented for each performance objective, performance goal, or the whole project. There are several key assumptions in this approach: Because all financial estimation methods are fallible, it makes more sense to estimate a range of financial return values within which the true value is likely to fall. In statistical terminology, rather than doing a point estimate, it is desirable to do an interval estimate. Following common statistical practice, for each financial return estimate, the 95% confidence interval will be calculated. With this interval, the odds are 95 out of 100 that the true estimate falls within the range. All financial estimates are calculated for a fixed period of time. Typically, returns are estimated on an annual basis. However, for many performance interventions, it is reasonable to expect that the major effects will accrue over time periods longer than one year. If this is the case, it will usually be desirable to estimate the returns for multiple years. Since the costs of interventions are not likely to be distributed evenly over time, it is also necessary to estimate costs for the same time pe riods. Depending on the situation, it may be reasonable to amortize some of the first year costs over a several year period. It is actually quite simple to implement in practice, assuming you have taken the time to develop a performance hierarchy. Once a hierarchy exists, all thats needed is an estimate of total costs and benefits for the project. Total costs should be relatively easy to obtain. Before implementation, one could use the budgeted amount for the program as an estimate. After the program is implemented, one simply uses the accounted costs for the project. To estimate benefits requires the Delphi procedure described earlier. This is a relatively simple process that should be easy to accomplish in less than an hour of participant time. The bottom line here is that a good performance measurement system will enable relatively easy estimation of financial results there is little additional marginal cost to estimating financial outcomes, assuming you have a well-constructed measurement system. The Concept System approach is designed so that the performance hierarchy is correctly constructed. Adding in the estimation of financial returns is then a relatively simple and inexpensive addition that yields critical information about the financial impacts of the performance improvement project, (Trochim .M.K.W, 2009). 1.3 Conduct comparative analysis of financial data Financial analysis refers to an assessment of the viability, stability and profitability of a business, sub-business or project. It is performed by professionals who prepare reports using ratios that make use of information taken from financial statements and other reports. These reports are usually presented to top management as one of their bases in making business decisions. Based on these reports, management may: Continue or discontinue its main operation or part of its business Make or purchase certain materials in the manufacture of its product; Acquire or rent/lease certain machineries and equipment in the production of its goods; Issue stocks or negotiate for a bank loan to increase its working capital; Make decisions regarding investing or lending capital; Other decisions that allow management to make an informed selection on various alternatives in the conduct of its business. Financial analysts often assess the firms: 1. Profitability its ability to earn income and sustain growth in both short-term and long-term. A companys degree of profitability is usually based on the income statement, which reports on the companys results of operations; 2. Solvency its ability to pay its obligation to creditors and other third parties in the long-term; 3. Liquidity its ability to maintain positive cash flow, while satisfying immediate obligations; Both 2 and 3 are based on the companys balance sheet, which indicates the financial condition of a business as of a given point in time. 4. Stability- the firms ability to remain in business in the long run, without having to sustain significant losses in the conduct of its business. Assessing a companys stability requires the use of both the income statement and the balance sheet, as well as other financial and non-financial indicators. Financial analysts often compare financial ratios (of solvency, profitability, growth, etc.): Past Performance Across historical time periods for the same firm (the last 5 years for example), Future Performance Using historical figures and certain mathematical and statistical techniques, including present and future values, This extrapolation method is the main source of errors in financial analysis as past statistics can be poor predictors of future prospects. Comparative Performance Comparison between similar firms. These ratios are calculated by dividing a (group of) account balance(s), taken from the balance sheet and / or the income statement, by another, for example  : n / equity = return on equity Net income / total assets = return on assets Stock price / earnings per share = P/E-ratio Comparing financial ratios are merely one way of conducting financial analysis. Financial ratios face several theoretical challenges: They say little about the firms prospects in an absolute sense. Their insights about relative performance require a reference point from other time periods or similar firms. One ratio holds little meaning. As indicators, ratios can be logically interpreted in at least two ways. One can partially overcome this problem by combining several related ratios to paint a more comprehensive picture of the firms performance. Seasonal factors may prevent year-end values from being representative. A ratios values may be distorted as account balances change from the beginning to the end of an accounting period. Use average values for such accounts whenever possible. Financial ratios are no more objective than the accounting methods employed. Changes in accounting policies or choices can yield drastically different ratio values,( Web 1, 2009). 1.4 Review and question financial data In November 2007 the Panel identified the areas in the economy considered to be under most strain as the banking, retail, travel, commercial property and house-building industries. The Panels selection of accounts for review in 2008/09 has been biased towards these sectors as annual financial statements and half-yearly accounts have become available. These reviews are continuing and the Panel is in correspondence with a number of companies. The Financial Reporting Council (FRC) has also taken a closer look at impairment and liquidity two aspects of reporting that are of increased significance given the pressure from the restricted availability of credit and reduced expectations for growth in the economy. The FRC is reviewing the goodwill and related impairment disclosures of 30 listed companies with significant goodwill balances at 31 December 2007 and the liquidity disclosures of 30 listed companies that have announced profit warnings or rescue fund raisings in the first half of 2008. The FRC will publish brief reports on its findings later in October. In 2007/08, the Panel reviewed 300 sets of accounts (2006/07: 311) and wrote letters to 138 companies (2006/07: 135) asking for further information about areas of possible non-compliance with the accounting requirements of the Companies Act 1985 (the Act) or the Financial Services Authoritys (FSAs) Listing Rules. At the time of writing this report, all but 17 cases are concluded. On the basis of accounts reviewed to March 2008, the Panel has concluded that the current standard of corporate reporting in the UK is good. The areas of reporting that prompted most questions were those dealing with more complex accounting issues or where the exercise of judgement b y management is most critical. The Panel did not identify any systemic issues requiring immediate remedial action. The Panel does not ask questions about reports and accounts in order to test its judgement against that of management. Directors, with the assistance of their professional advisers, are best placed to apply corporate reporting requirements to the particular circumstances of their companies. The Panel asks directors for additional information or explanations when it needs to clarify the facts and circumstances attaching to specific events, transactions or conditions reflected in reports and accounts. Once these are available the Panel is better placed to consider the thought processes applied to the reporting requirements, particularly the extent to which management has relied on working assumptions that are supported by a realistic appraisal of past performance and experience and future expectations, taking account of risks and uncertainties. It is the Panels experience that reports which clearly set out the companys business model are those which are easiest to understand. The Panel continues to be pleased by the way in which directors co-operate openly and constructively with the Panel and by their willingness to volunteer undertakings to improve the quality of their future annual and halfyearly reports. Company responses to the Panels letters of enquiry continued to be well considered. Directors who answered the questions they were asked, who presented well analysed and comprehensive replies, and who involved audit committees and external auditors in the process will usually have found that the Panel was able to conclude its enquiries after minimal exchanges of correspondence. The Panel published two press notices in the year in respect of companies that had failed to comply with the requirements of the Act. These companies restated comparative amounts in their next set of annual and half-yearly financial statements. UK companies with securities traded on a regulated market have been required since 2005 to prepare their consolidated financial statements in accordance with IFRS. From January 2007, AIM quoted companies have also prepared their accounts in accordance with IFRS as required by the Stock Exchange. The Panels experience is that there has been good progress and that the overall quality of financial statements has improved since 2005. The areas referred to below represent those where there is room for further advances in quality, particularly in the context of the difficult current conditions in the financial markets. Disclosure points that were frequently raised with companies during the period under review are noted at the end of the section. During the year to March 2008, the Panel reviewed the accounts of 10 retail and investment banks reporting under IFRS. The Panel considered compliance with all applicable reporting standards. The Panel identified banks as a priority sector in its accounts selection for 2008/09. Reviews conducted in the current year have concentrated on disclosures of financial risks as required by IFRS 7, the results of which will be reflected in the 2009 Panel Report. Issues raised varied between banks and there was no evidence of systemic reporting weaknesses. Most of the points raised indicated a need for refinement of certain disclosures rather than significant changes in recognition or measurement policies. The Panels remit was extended during the year to cover directors reports, including the business review, for periods commencing on or after 1 April 2006; effectively 31 March 2007 year ends. The following summarised findings therefore relate only to a minority of accounts reviewed in the period to March 2008. Comments on business reviews now feature regularly in the Panels correspondence with companies. The Panels approach to the business review was set out in a press notice published in September 2007 and also in a paper made available on the FRRP website, (Web 2, 2009). 2: Be able to assess budgets based on financial data to support organizational objectives. 2.1 Identify how a budget can be produced taking into account financial constraints and achievement of targets, legal requirements and accounting conventions The modern U.S. budget process dates from the Budget and Accounting act of 1921, which required that federal agencies request their funds from Congress only through the presidents budget. This act reflected in the view that the budget is a financial plan for the government, which has become among the most common ways of characterizing it. Equally frequent is the statement that the budget is ultimately a political document or that the budget process is ultimately a political one. Perhaps because they are stated so frequently, these phrases tend to be passed over, as if their implications were obvious. On reflection, however, the combination of a comprehensive financial plan that becomes a reality with a political process driven by the structure of the US governmental system hardly seems to be a formula for rationally driven, clear and effective budget. That there are shortcomings is not so surprising. The budget is a financial plan, but it is one of extraordinary scope and detail. Modern budgetary practice recognizes three major levels which the budget addresses: Macro economic (concerning the degree to which the budget affects national savings consumption investment and output), Major sector choices or national needs Karen including considerations of both expenditure policy and tax policy), and Detailed program design and execution. Simply put, the budget attempts to cope with this dilemma: people want individual pieces of the budget to be larger but for the total to be smaller. Steps in the Evolution of the Budget Process Budget and accounting act of 1921 established a single federal budget proposed by the president to Congress Post-World War II evolution of fiscal policy incorporated the budget as a factor in determining the direction of the economy Budget and deficit control act of 1973 created a congressional budget process and provided for specific measures for the president to propose and the Congress to act on reductions in approved appropriations. Graham Rodman Hollings provided for automatic cuts in budget outlays in the event deficit targets were exceeded Budget enforcement act provided specific limits for annual appropriations and created zero sum rules for changes to an entitlement programs and revenue measures. A major purpose of Budget concepts is to create a level playing field on which advocates for using the public treasury may meet in fair and open competition. Continuing the familiar analogy, the budget process provides the rules of the game. However, the game may be played by five- year-olds, and there can be as many referees yelling from the sidelines as there are players maybe more. Five-year-olds understand cheating, which is not to be condoned, but they also understand that changing the rules of the game, redefining what constitutes winning and getting a referee to rule in your favor are all excellent substitutes. It is not a coincidence that insiders discuss budget scorekeeping as something that is malleable, (Mathiasen.D,2009). 2.2 Analyse the budget outcomes against organization objectives and identify alternatives. 1. An operating budget is a formal, written plan that aligns the operating requirements with the funding sources of an organization. An operating budget reflects the missions and specific command objectives of the organization, as well as any limitations and controls (e.g., constraining targets, available funds) imposed upon it. An operating budget provides one the means to control obligations and expenditures against approved funding levels. 2. The objective of the operating budget is to provide managers with the ability to plan, organize, staff, and control the operations to accomplish the mission for the fiscal year. 3. There are several factors that are critical to the success of an operating budget. The following is a synopsis of those factors that need to be present to create a positive effect on the process. a. Management Support. Managers at all levels must support the operating budget concept not only in the formulation stage but through the execution stage. b. Guidelines. Guidance must be issued early to allow sufficient time for logical thought processes to take place, and to allow time for establishing milestone dates, specifying targets and limitations, defining terms, formats, and cost categories. c. Periodic Review. Operating budgets must be reviewed periodically to determine that the budget is properly executed. Appropriate adjustments can be made after these reviews. d. Level of Control. The responsibility for budget preparation and execution must be assigned to the level of management that has the responsibility and authority to control costs. Managers should not delegate this responsibility to personnel who do not have the skills and knowledge needed to prepare the organizations operating budget. Budget formulation and execution responsibilities should be incorporated into each appropriate managers performance standards to ensure accountability. Operating Budgeting Process The operating budget process consists of seven phases. Following is a brief description of each phase. Phase 1. Formulation This is the initial phase of the operating budget process. Budget Officers identify policies and guidance from HQUSACE and local areas of concern. Budget Officers will also determine the workload (income and expense), identify targets and limitations (planning and design, supervision and administration, overtime, travel, training, awards, etc.), income estimating guidelines and budget milestones. Phase 2. Review and Analysis Budget Officers review the initial input from the organizations for reasonableness, accuracy, valid assumptions, and past performance. They are also responsible for ensuring rates for departmental overhead, general and administrative overhead, facility accounts and plant accounts are appropriate and reasonable. Budget Officers prepare a proposed budget, identify the impact of alternatives to the proposed budget, make recommendations, and present the proposed budget to the PBAC (Program and Budget Advisory Committee). Phase 3. PBAC Review and Consensus The PBAC will review the proposed budget and alternatives and will determine a recommended budget for submission to the Commander. The PBAC may identify unfinanced requirements, showing their dollar amounts and justifications. Significant changes will be approved by the PBAC and the Commander. Phase 4. Approval The Budget Officer submits the PBAC recommended budget and alternatives for final Command approval. The approved operating budget is made available for execution. Phase 5. Execution Managers obligate and expend funds in accordance with the approved operating budget. Phase 6. Monitoring Operating budgets should be monitored on a monthly basis. Feedback reports are available to managers for monitoring actual performance compared to budgeted amounts. The Budget Officer provides periodic execution reports and analysis to the PBAC and the Commander. As a minimum, mid-year review will be completed. Phase 7. Adjustments Significant operating budget changes identified during the monitoring stage will be summarized and presented to the PBAC and the Commander for approval, (Genetti.A.JR, 1998). 3: Be able to evaluate financial proposals for expenditure submitted by others 3.1 Identify criteria by which proposals are judged The Sustain our Nation experts will be judging proposals using the following criteria: Identifying a Need Does the proposal address one or more of the five key themes? Does the proposal identify a genuine social need without creating issues or problems? User Empathy Have the relevant target individuals and groups been fully consulted in order to identify a legitimate issue? Does the designer fully understand the lifestyle and attitudes of the end user/stakeholders? Sustainability Has the designer considered the triple bottom line: economic, social and environmental factors? Innovation Does the proposal demonstrate a breadth of innovation and creativity? Business planning Are the business/enterprise, its objectives, strategies and market credible? Does the application include viable financial forecasts? Quality of presentation Is the presentation of a professional standard with cohesive narrative and appropriate visuals? (Web 3, 2009). 3.2 Analyse the viability of a proposal for expenditure Calculation of Financial and Economic Viability    Financial and economic appraisal is an important component of any project without which it is incomplete. Increasing awareness about the use of scare resources and the returns obtainable from it makes the issue more important. Financial analysis is used to describe the commercial viability of the project and shows its strength from financial angle. The concept of economic analysis can be considered as an extension of the financial analysis. In economic analysis the concern is on the developmental effect on the society/economy as a whole as against the financial analysis that bothers the interest of the specific entity. In the present report, financial analysis has been done for each market and of each category. Assumptions In the absence of past trends and its proper records it is necessary to make certain assumptions based on the reality of situations for assessing the true viability of any project. For this master plan, following assumptions have been taken:   i) Economic Life of the Project The horizon is important for calculation of benefit and cost of a project. Generally, 20-25 years period is considered proper as economic life of the project. In present case, calculations have been made assuming the economic life of the markets as 20years ending at 2020 A.D.   ii) Growth Period Proposed proposals for market development in Chhatishgarh is very simple. In number of markets, already minimum necessary requirement of construction has been met out and only a small addition or change will take place. In other cases markets would come up in a reasonable time. Therefore, it has been assumed that three-years period will be sufficient for completion of the proposed construction to make the new market yard fully operational. The full revenue in the form of ground rent is expected to flow after a gestation period of three years only.   iii) Occupancy    While making calculations, it has been assumed that all sellers operating in the market at present will shift and occupy space in new market, as they would get better trading facilities. Therefore, 100% space occupancy along with zero leakage of revenue has been considered. Occupancy of space in godown has been estimated for three to six months only in a year since space in godown may be utilized or in demand during harvesting and peak marketing season of different commodities. iv) Income and Expenditure    The main source of income of markets is market fee, leased rent and other sources of income. The income from market fee is assumed and computed at the rate of 1.5% of the value of arrivals expected with the implicit assumption that all the markets will be regulated and there will be a market committee to supervise the market operations and collect the market fee. The growth rate, which has been used for projecting the arrivals, is used for projecting income from this source for next 20 years i.e. up to 2018. Base year value is based on the actual value of arrival for the year 1998-99.   The other main source of income is rent chargeable on buildings. Rent has been assumed at 14% of the cost of construction of trading section and non-trading sections. No change rental has been proposed. While projecting income from this source it would get generate after the gestation period of three years is over. Usually, rent can be increased @10% after every 3 years, which would be, beneficial to the markets. Other income includes fines, sale of forms etc. that has been assumed  £.20,000 per annum and has been kept constant.   Various kinds of expenditure items like establishment cost, repair and maintenance, cost of land, capital cost etc. have to be looked into before preparing cash-flow statement. Establishment cost has been assumed @30% of the market fee expected, as the present staffing plan and expenditure was not available. Repair and maintenance cost has been estimated at 1% of the total cost. A lump sum amount of  £.5000 has been kept as miscellaneous expenditure to meet any contingency. Each market committee has to contribute Marketing Board Fund out of its income. Accordingly, it has been proposed that each market will contribute 10% of its market fee to this fund and the same has been kept as one of the component of operating expenditure. Gross benefits have been worked out for 26 years by deducting total operating expenditure from total income. Net benefits are net of interest payment and depreciation. Depreciation has been estimated by the straight-line method i.e. total capital cost divided by the life of the project assumed a